The Culture of Comments: Starting from the Records on Stone

From Engraved Stones to Digital Streams: The Unstoppable Voice of Koreans.

We can trace how communication methods in Korea have evolved from ancient times to the modern era.
We gain an understanding of how power, media, and public voices have interacted throughout history.
We reflect on what is needed today for a healthy digital public sphere.

Hello! Today, we are embarking on a fascinating journey through time to discover the roots of Korea’s comment culture.

From records engraved on stone to the familiar internet comments of today, let’s follow the long history of how Koreans have communicated, resisted, and shaped public opinion.

Table 1: The Evolution of Media and Comments in Korean History

Era	Major Media Forms	Form of ‘Comment’
Three Kingdoms/Unified Silla	Wooden tablets, Stone tablets	Administrative transitions, Ceremonial respect
Joseon Dynasty	Official gazettes, Petitions, Wall writings	Petitions, Anonymous slander, Collective action resolutions
Enlightenment Period	Hansung Sunbo, Independence Newspaper	Reader submissions, Opinion formation through editorials
Japanese Occupation/Authoritarianism	Controlled newspapers, Broadcasting	Underground publications, Limited submissions
Digital Age	PC communication, Portal news, Social media	Internet comments, Malicious comments, Online petitions

1. The Dawn of Voices: Records of Ancient and Medieval Times

1.1 The Neural Network of the State: Wooden Tablets

Before paper became common, the ‘mokgan’ (wooden tablet) was a key technology for managing the state in ancient Korea.

This was not a medium for the public like today’s newspapers; it served as an internal administrative ’neural network’. Mokgan contained information such as tax collection and military supplies management. In a sense, it was the state’s secret ledger.

The discovery of hundreds of mokgan at Silla and Baekje archaeological sites shows that an intricate bureaucracy relied on records even before paper was widely used.

Mokgan, as a past record-keeping method, served as a crucial database for state management.

1.2 Permanent Public Memory: Stone Tablets

Unlike the temporary administrative records of mokgan, ‘geul-dol’ (stone tablets) were the first mass media intended to convey something permanently to the public.

Stele and tombstones were used to boast royal authority, commemorate significant events, and establish social norms. The very material of stone symbolized ’eternity’ and ‘power’.

Although these inscriptions were one-way information delivery, the act of people showing respect to the stele and sanctifying the location can be seen as a form of public ‘comment’.

2. Writing of Resistance: The Public Sphere and Comment Culture of Joseon

2.1 The Birth of an Enlightened Public: Official Gazettes

‘Jo-bo’ was the official newspaper of the Joseon court, primarily handwritten to convey news such as royal orders and appointments to officials and the nobility.

However, in 1577, a significant event occurred. Private merchants attempted to print and sell Jo-bo using movable type in the ‘Private Printing Jo-bo Incident’. This was the first attempt in Korean history to commercialize state information.

King Seonjo harshly punished these individuals, demonstrating how fearful he was of losing the monopoly on information. This incident marked the beginning of all future struggles for press freedom.

The Jo-bo of the Joseon era was the official channel for conveying the king’s voice, but there were attempts to print and distribute it privately. — The Jo-bo of the Joseon era was the official channel for conveying the king's voice, but there were attempts to print and distribute it privately.

2.2 Channels of Resistance: From Petitions to Anonymous Wall Writings

In the Joseon era, there were both official and unofficial ‘comments’ directed at the state.

Petitions: A legitimate channel for officials or scholars to criticize policies and express opinions to the king. However, it came with significant risks, as many scholars submitted ‘maninso’ (petitions signed by many), resembling today’s ‘signature campaigns’, which was the pinnacle of petition culture.
Wall writings: Those without power and those resisting the regime used anonymous ‘wall writings’. Typically written in Hangul for easy reading, these wall writings criticized officials, spread rumors, and swayed public sentiment. The state viewed this as a serious threat, punishing responsible individuals with death.

2.3 Calls to Action and Collective Mobilization: The ‘Sabal Tongmun’

‘Sabal Tongmun’ was an ingenious communication tool for mobilizing the masses, particularly useful during the Donghak Peasant Revolution.

It involved drawing a circle on paper with an overturned rice bowl and writing participants’ names around the circle. This way, the main instigator could remain anonymous, allowing everyone to share responsibility and evade government tracking.

The ‘Sabal Tongmun’ was an ingenious communication tool for mobilizing the masses. — The 'Sabal Tongmun' was an ingenious communication tool for mobilizing the masses.

3. Modern Media and the Voice of the Nation

3.1 The Birth of Modern Newspapers and the Hangul Revolution

As we moved into modern times, a revolution in communication occurred. The official gazette ‘Hansung Sunbo’ (1883), which was produced in Classical Chinese, transitioned to the privately published ‘Independence Newspaper’ (1896) in pure Hangul.

The significance of the ‘Independence Newspaper’ lies in its use of pure Hangul and spacing, making it accessible for everyone to read. This opened the door for commoners and women to access information for the first time.

The ‘reader submission section’ was Korea’s first instance of interactive journalism. What particularly impressed me while tracing this history was the insight that the democratization of media depends not only on technology but also on ’language’.

The emergence of modern newspapers like the Independence Newspaper led to the popularization of information through the use of Hangul.

3.2 Gagged Media: Colonial and Authoritarian Rule

However, press freedom did not last long. The Japanese established the ‘Newspaper Law’ in 1907, beginning to censor and control Korean media.

This oppression continued into the military dictatorship after liberation. Particularly notorious was the ‘Reporting Guidelines’ of the Chun Doo-hwan regime in the 1980s. The government would call newspapers daily to dictate which articles to write and which to avoid, even controlling the size of headlines and page placement.

4. Digital Agora: The Age of Comments

4.1 From Closed Networks to Public Squares

In the 1990s, the emergence of PC communications like ‘Hitel’ and ‘Nownuri’ opened the era of online communication.

Initially, these were closed communities where only acquaintances gathered, but everything changed with the advent of portal sites. The launch of ‘Daum Agora’ in 2004 created a massive digital square. Portal news sites like Naver and Daum, along with their comment features, made ‘comments’ the most important way for the public to engage with the news.

4.2 The Power and Shadow of Online Public Opinion

Online comments have both light and shadow.

Constructive Function: Comments can correct misinformation in articles, provide deeper knowledge from experts, and allow people to share their experiences positively. Sometimes, comment sections can be filled with more valuable information than the original article, leading to the phenomenon of ‘comment journalism’.
Destructive Function: However, malicious comments, or ‘malicious posts’, are a serious social issue. Cyberbullying and the spread of false information leave irreparable scars, especially on public figures. The tragic deaths of stars like Choi Jin-sil, Sulli, and Goo Hara highlighted how lethal online defamation can be, ultimately leading portals to decide to close comment sections on entertainment news.

In the digital age, comments have become a powerful tool for shaping public opinion, but they can also lead to serious social issues.

Case 1: Hwang Woo-suk Incident (2005): At that time, netizens fervently defended Dr. Hwang through online forums and comments, branding the media that raised doubts as ’traitors’. Online public opinion played a significant role in creating and maintaining the ‘Hwang Woo-suk myth’, but ultimately contributed to its collapse when the truth was revealed.
Case 2: Candlelight Vigils (2008 & 2016): The candlelight vigils against the import of U.S. beef in 2008 and the protests against the government’s corruption in 2016 demonstrated how online platforms can organize massive street protests. The digital square and the physical square were powerfully connected.

5. Control of Comments and Public Opinion: Challenges in the Digital Age

5.1 The Battle Over Anonymity: Internet Real Name System

As the negative effects of online comments grew, the government introduced the ‘Internet Real Name System’ to increase accountability and reduce malicious comments.

However, it faced strong opposition for stifling freedom of expression, and ultimately, in 2012, the Constitutional Court ruled that “the freedom of anonymous expression is an essential element of a democratic society”, declaring the Internet Real Name System unconstitutional.

5.2 Organized Comments: The Druking Incident and Opinion Manipulation

The ‘Druking Comment Manipulation Incident’ was a shocking event that demonstrated how easily the digital public sphere can be manipulated.

A small organized group used an automation program called a macro to manipulate the ‘agree/disagree’ counts on Naver news comments, attempting to distort public opinion on specific political issues. This incident raised fundamental questions about whether the ‘online public opinion’ we see is genuine.

5.3 Constantly Changing Rules: Portal Comment Policies

Portal sites continue to change their comment policies. Whenever a social event occurs, they introduce new rules under pressure from public opinion. This shows how challenging it is for portals to balance user participation, social responsibility, and political pressure.

Comparison: The Evolution of Portal News Comment Policies

Table 2: Timeline of Portal News Comment Policy Comparisons (Naver vs. Daum/Kakao)

Period/Year	Portal	Major Policy Changes
2004	Daum	Launch of ‘Agora’ service
2007	Both	Introduction of Internet Real Name System (limited identity verification)
2012	Both	Abolishment of Internet Real Name System (unconstitutional ruling)
2019	Kakao (Daum)	Temporary suspension of entertainment news comment service
2020	Naver	Full disclosure of comment authors’ nicknames/history
2023	Kakao (Daum)	Transition of news comments to ‘Time Talk’ (real-time chat)

Conclusion

Through this long history, we can discover several important facts.

First, the desire to express oneself remains unchanged. From wall writings in the Joseon era to today’s comments, Koreans have persistently raised their voices to participate in public discourse and hold power accountable.
Second, technology changes, but the conflict between freedom and responsibility continues. While the forms of media change, the challenge of protecting the voices of criticism while safeguarding the socially vulnerable remains.
Third, new times require new skills. In an era where algorithms influence public opinion, we must develop the ability to read and write digital information critically, known as ‘digital literacy’.

Reflecting on this long and intense history of communication, what are your thoughts on today’s comment culture?

References